Up and down bycle wheel hopping

What causes distorted up and down wheel hopping. Severe hopping is often caused by the circumference of the rim is compromised between spokes.

The bike upside down resting on the seat and handle bars we can assess the severity. Move the wheel round. Any hopping their will be a radial dip or rise in the rim. Stop right where there is a dip or rise and observe between spokes. It is likely you'll find a couple of places right between spokes distorting the true circumference of the wheel. You can map these spots with dabs paint on the rim. (Or the spokes if you like). When there is dips and rises between spokes no amount of spoke tension adjustment can strighten them. In fact only makes them worse.

Using standard commuter and sports bikes like a donkey will do it. Constant loads over the back wheel distorts their rims in this way. Back packer adventure, electric and cargo bike wheels are engineered to handle stress. There is also the potential of breaking spoke heads off at the hub flange.

If replacing broken spoke of any bike make sure the rim is not warped between the spokes. If what seems like a standard sports bike to you, standing up to pannier (side saddle bags) and carrier loading well odds are engineered back packer adventure tour bike. If you are into carrying loads a lot make sure you use adventure back packing cargo bikes. Fitting these wheels on standard sports frames the weight will only transfer to the wheel drop outs taking it's toll on the frame.

The following is when there is no distortion compromises between spokes that can be adjusted easily by spoke tension adjustments.

Side to side wobble can easily be fixed by spoke tension adjustment. It is possible to true with out a truing stand with the tire and tube removed reassemble in the bike. If rim breaks the break rubbers make ideal guides.

Bikes that have no rim breaks a jerry-rigging piece of string tied across the front fork for front wheels or for rear wheels across the rear wheel drop out stays is a helpful guide. Move the rim round moving round the stretched across string. With no dips and rises between spokes we can clearly see the rim moves side to side of the across the string.

If truing a rim in bike there is a couple of important details that shouldn't be overlooked. One is your eye coordination view of the straightness of the hub in the front forks or rear wheel drop out stays is aligned dead straight otherwise you will be truing the rim with a cockeyed wobbling mounted wheel that can cause truing difficulty. Depending on the wheel there danger of creating dips and rises between spokes.

Appling to bikes with no external rear wheel gear wheel bikes. When you reassemble the chain tight you will experience as if there is dragging feeling as if the bike is heavily under powered slowing you down. Fairly sloppy it can't come off the front chain wheel or rear wheel sprocket you will experience freedom of peddling movement in the peddling. The bike feels more a lot lighter. Anyway, tight chains stretch the links warring out the chain links.

Anther important detail if crescents (Revolving or shifting spanners as they are also known) is all you've got they are crude and bulky making it hard to move and burr nipples round beyond loosing and use.

Proper spoke keys are available at bike shops. Low cost ones tend to be low tensile (softer metal) strength that tend to warp in time slipping round the nipples rendering the tool useless. You will be forever replacing nipples that won't work anymore. Expensive top of the line tools are best grip because of high tensile hardened steel quality strengths without damaging nipples to nuts and bolts. They are a firm grip.

An important detail when replacing nipples the screwdriver must have a sold grip on tight nipples. Incorrect size does much damage to the slit as as a shifting spanner does to the nipple shanks rendering it useless. When these things happen we are forced to cut the spoke to replace the whole spoke just because of a ruined nipple. What ever method used gather the tools and spokes you need before you start.

Youtub has plenty of video clips with lots of helpful tips you can follow visually. In your search engine type in the key words youtube truing bicycle wheels. There are clips that show you how to true a wheel with out a truing stand.

Basically the bike is upside down with the tire off and the rim back in secured in place. Depending whether you are left or right handed you will be squatting next the the wheel. Find the best side of the bike that suites hand best.

When round the rim the stretch out string find a point where the rim moves to one side. Loosing spokes will pull back centralizing just as tightening. With no distortion problems between spokes the string or rim brake bike rubbers guide you in the alignment.

A sign the rim has been compromised between the spokes you end up and creating up and down bumping. A sign some spokes appear to be to short in one corner. It is enviable the opposite corner will appear to long. To short is a sign of a rise. To long a sign of a dip. It's time to eye ball check between spokes. You will find there is nothing you can do with any more spoke tension apart from making things worse.

In the youtube clips rim brake rubbers are handy to uses as a guide. Observe how the rim runs between them. Youtbe clips show tips on how jerry rig with plastic zip ties as a substitute refence if your bike has no rim brakes.

With experience you can tell witch side of the rim needs to be straightened by the revolving the rim between rim break rubbers or your make shift guides. (As according the youtube clip tip).

The key to lateral side to side wobbling is to loosen or tighten keeping an eye on the radial up and down adjustment that pulls the rim to the left or right centering between the guides automatically adjusting rise and dip spot areas automatically.

The following are technical issue keys to replacing spokes to building wheels. In building on any salvaged rim always double check them between the spoke nipple holes are not compromised first

Wheel size.

As explained in some yuotube clips wheel size is stamped on the tire wall. X is the width of the tire including the tire rim height. A dress making tape measure across the tip to tip of whole the  tire will confirm imperial inches and the flip side in metric.

Mountain and commuter bikes are commonly 26 inches for adults and 24 for the younger set. The metric equivalent to 26 inch is 700mm (or 70 centimeters if you like) called 700c. 26 inch and 700c wheels may look identical but comparing a 700c tire will be a little smaller than the imperil 26 inch meaning the spokes are different lengths by a couple of millimeters between the wheel sizes.

It is a common mistake getting mixed up between a 26 impearl and metric 700C rim assume looking the same size at first glance. Novices often end up (including any spokes salvage from another wheel) struggling with metric 700C tire onto a 26 inch impearl rim and vice versa, a 26 tire onto a 700C rim respectively. They are not the same wheel and tire size. One is metric the other imperial.

The width of the tire is also an issue.

An important detail is to observe the width that includes the height of the tire wall. We can all see in bike shops have a variety of tire sizes in both impearl and metric. When replacing a tire take particular note of the original tire's width and tire wall height details. Racing sports bikes are the thinnest and smallest rim height. There are common commuter bikes both standard and electric. The wide cargo bike tires and the widest of them all are mountain sport bikes.

Budget tires (the cheep ones) tend to be low kilometer ware and tare lasting. Seems seem to become unstuck. The most important detail are not puncture proof. Mere thorns will puncture brand new ones, while expensive tires that has done many kilometers still in good order takes a huge nail to puncture those tires. The more expensive the more kilometers of ware and tear quality tolerance and designed with puncture proof property in mind.

Double check with a tape measure the diameter of you bikes tire to that of the diameter of the rim. 26 inch and 700C may look the same size at first glance but the 700c rim is slightly smaller. If you have striped down rims you can see this by comparing the the two sizes. Picking up a new spoke or tire from a bike shop quote not only the tire diameter but also the width. If you are not sure take some tape measurements of the original rim to the shop personal or use the original spoke.

Another meathead of determining what spoke length is required measure one of the original wheel's spokes with a tape measure from the spoke nipple in the rim to the spoke head in the hub flange. If you have a selection of savage spokes you've salvaged from other wheels compare your spares and use the one that is the same length.

Paying close attention the spoke arrangement is the key in getting the wheel running smoothly. An important detail if you have a striped down hub or a brand new spare count the number of spoke holes round the hub flange. The number of spoke holes counted one side equals the same number the opposite flange doubled equals the total number of spokes of the whole wheel. For 18 18 holes on the left side and 18 on the right equals the total number of spokes of the rim is a detail worth knowing.

Bike shop racing bike displays each side of the hub flange can be as little as 5 or 6. Common commuter and mountain bikes not very common at 16 commonly 18. Cargo bike carrying capacity hubs can be as much as a total of 20 each side. The spoke holes represent one side doubled the total number of spoke spokes of the whole wheel an example of the perfect symmetry to bicycle wheels.

Counting the total number of spokes divided in half is the key to the number of the hub. And vice versa the number of spoke holes doubled the total number of spoke holes required by the rim.

In doing so you will observe an important detail in replacing spokes. As you will see there are alternating inward and out outward pointing spoke heads round the circumference of the hub flange.

One points inward, the next one out, then the next one in then the next one out, then in, respectively. (There are a selection of yuotube clips on spoke arrangements to view)

Replacing a broken spoke (as shown by these clips) is either an inward pointing or outward point heads on one side of the hub flange. Copy the spoke head pattern threading the new spoke head direction according to the overall spoke in and out head pattern. Keep the spoke heads uniform throughout the circumference of the hub flange. If you are building a wheel pay close attention both front and rear left and right sides of the hub detail.

Copying fully made up wheels to a new bike wheel you will observe alternating Inward and outward pointing spoke heads both sides of the hub flanges. Noting there is an alternating pair of spokes heads reveals a perfect repeating symmetrical paten in the circumference of the whole wheel itself.

Following another wheel as a model is the key to bicycle wheel mechanics.

One of the most important details in rebuilding wheels from scratch is the slight dish like curve of the hub flanges. Using a striped down rear wheel to using a brand new spare as a model or if it's your own bike is all you've got observing the hub flanges you can make out one side may appear slightly dished while the other side may look dead straight. Depending on your bike there is the potential for both sides could be dead straight or both sides dished. Correspondingly there are rims with alternating staggering spoke holes in some rims.

What ever you find with your bike is one of the most important details of getting the wheel running smoothly.

Bike parks illustrate clearly the importance of this. Viewing back wheels square on, you will see various dished like appearances to each wheel. You will encounter allsorts of bikes single, double and triple front chain wheels, 1, 5, 6, 7 or 8 rear sprocket sets. Statistically math's works out to 7 possible arrangements can be seen.

Aligning square on closely at a rear wheel specially, you will note the details of some bikes the spokes look dished out and some flat inwards. You will note a variation of some gear cluster sides may look flat, while the opposite side may look dished. Others both sides may look flat while others both sides may look dished.

An important detail to note is the gap between the gear cluster and opposite side of the rear wheel drop outs. There is 4 possible hub arrangements in three statistical variations. There is the obvious, slightly obvious and not so obvious dished like appearance to each wheel. It all depends on model manufacture design. A quick glance at the front chain wheel churnings and the rear wheel gear cluster set can tell you straight away the gaps are controlled by the speed of the bike.

Looking at striped down hubs or new spares as a model if you can see the shortest hub can only accommodate a limited number of sprockets telling you a 10 speed hub. The longest length up 8 with the variations between. Thus with experience one can learn to tell the important difference between a 10, 12, 15,18, 21 to a 24 speed hub.

Viewing the rear wheel of bikes at bike stands as a model the important detail of the hub flanges revealing rear wheels guided between the drop outs stays are perfectly even clearances each side of the drop out stay accommodating the number of rear wheel sprockets. You will observe either gear cluster or opposite sides look corresponding flat or slightly dished on one side or dished both or flat both sides aligning the hole wheel dead center between the stays all due to the slightly dish curve of hub flanges.

Observing the important detail of the the stays under the brake bridges plenty of even clearance both sides of the tires you can check with rulers. Dissembled hubs show the slightly curved inward or dead straight gear cluster opposite side flanges give those dished like appearances to rear wheels. Some hub flanges will make the whole wheel appear flat or dished both sides. Doing arithmetic statistics tells us there is up to 6 possible combination to be seen.

Operating on the principle of the details when rebuilding a wheel from salvaged spare is to to aim for the key to wheel building success.

Looking to the front wheel as a model another spare wheel or a new bike wheel you can observe right on the flange how a spoke crosses a spoke head. Tracing the spoke crosses another spoke father up. Then another. This is called cross. Depending on your bike, racing bike wheels are commonly 2 cross.

Using another wheel or a whole bike even better copying from new bike wheels as a model you will observe light weight racing bikes as little as one. Standard mountain and commuter bikes commonly 3 cross. Strong cargo bike carrying capacity wheels can be up to 4 cross. It turns out to be a perfect mathematical constant. There is no such thing as fractions over cross arrangements. They can't.

Depending on your bike there are 1, 2, 3, or 4 crossed wheels. Observing you own bike wheel determines the cross of you bike.

The first thing you will notice there is no gaps when crossing because the spokes are crossed over and under each other. This is the strength of bicycle wheels. It is why they are so sturdy. As the wheel rotates each crossing under and over support each other from flexing. Gaps allow this to happen braking off at the head right at the hub flange every time. As a new bike wheel tells you often not threading a replacement spoke tucked in and over each other is a mistake of novices make.

Another important detail you will see a prefect symmetrical pattern from the spoke nipples in the from rim to the hub flange. Tracing a spoke to the hub flange you will find every second spoke nipple is the opposite side of the hub flange. They two alternate in a prefect symmetrical pattern.

If you take an outward pointing head tracing to the spoke to the nipple in the rim counting five along and tracing the fifth spoke back to the flange you will observe the next  inward spoke. The same is

true with inward pointing heads all round the rim in a perfect and regular symmetrical pattern.

Using new bike or a known good wheel as a model novices can learn what rebuilt wheel should be.

Every inward and outward pointing spoke heads are on the same sides of each hub flange. If you take a pair of spoke nipples and trace the spokes down to the hub flange will either be inward or outward pointing that side of the wheel. A good model to work from will help you determine the right way to reassemble a new spoke.

Choosing the right length is a couple of options. If you have the old one removed  you can measure with a tape measure or the spoke void left left in the rim or one of the other spokes.

Alternatively if you have spare spokes laying round check them against the gap. You can either

Compare them to the other spokes or line up the head lining up with the spoke hole in the hub flange lining up the nipple thread to just under the nipple hole of the rim.

A important detail to understand it is a mistake to use a spoke protruding though rim nipple hole or to short. To long you run out of threat not able to tighten. To short pulls bulges in the rim helping to put more of a wobble in the rim.

Just right the spoke head lined up with the spoke hole in the hub flange with the tip of the thread just under the rim hole. Following new bike wheel patterns to aim for when replacing a new spoke. That's the easy part.

The hard part is proper spoke tension. Testing spoke tension on a known good or new bike tells you what spoke tensions should be. It is a mistake to tighten spokes in line one after the other. That only makes it easy for novices to create badly distorted rim wobble. It only mangers to twist over the rim more.

The bike upside down resting on the set and handle bars  a spinning wheel shows the slightest rim wobble. It is often deceiving as a up and down and side to side bumping in the rim at the same time.

Aware of the way the hub flange arranges the spokes nipples in the rim alignment is a important detail in adjusting out the rim wobble though spoke tension.

The proper way to true a wheel is a proper wheel truing jig professional bicycle shop mechanics use. Wheels are mounted using the axial in a frame between a pair of precision pin points. It is a lot easier than using the frame of your bike.

It is possible to true to some extent in bikes. A handy feature of rim brake bikes are ideal used as make shift reference guides. Other bikes make it more compacted. The only make shift reference available aligning between the  front forks for front wheels and rear wheel drop out stays for rear wheels. It takes a great deal of experience and skill.

However make shift guides can be fitted to the front forks or rear wheel drop outs with simple broom handle storage clips taking the place rim brake rubber pads of rim brake bikes. Mount the clip aligning the a reference point for each side of the wheel.

An important detail using only the tools you've got cheep shifting revolving crescent spanners destroys nipple nipple crisp. Not only is there no room to turn the nipples the cheapness of the jaws is are to slack specially worn out slipping on the nipple shanks unable to get a firm grip butching up the shank giving you moving spoke nipple problem movement heart aches. Expensive top of the line worth a lot of money cressets are much better but there is still the great risk of room and ruining spoke nipple shank.

Temperal Paradox

There is a Facebook post entitled time travel is real. Youtube is full of video clip examples of mysteries claiming can only be explained by time travel. There is a clip that asks is time travel possible. Time travel intertwines and entangles yesterday, today and tomorrow called paradoxes the most common the Grandfather paradox.

The TV series Star Trek was not afraid of some time travel stories. So far star wars hasn't gone there. Some of us believe there is no distention between the past and present. We never remember anything of the future beyond present time. The only the past. The future always a blank. Every stop watch, wrist watch and clock second hand moving every division (including digital seconds) is a now moment of time. Every present second passes into the past second in every past minute of every hour of every day of our lives.

The second hand tracks 60 present times in every minute. We know there is 60 minutes in an hour. A one hour long TV program is made up of 3 thousand 600 now moments of time.

Every 12 midnight is a calendar date change every 24 hours. Our clocks and watches track every date change. In terms of seconds from the first second 12 midnight to the last second before the date changes again is made up of 86 thousand 400 now moment's of time. We know their is 7 days to every week. In terms now moments of time is 60 times 60 (60 squared) times 24 times 7.

That is, the first second 12 midnight the first working day including the week end to the last second 12 midnight Sunday night where the cycle of the week days repeat. Every month, of our calendar, every year, decade that pass on earth will be made up of the now moments of time into the future. In theory every century every millennia (thousand years) million, a billion even a trillion centuries pass now moments of time.

Anybody traveling into the past or future never know what is about to happen to them personally. In the past or future every future second is still a blank in that time just as it was in their present. The things they do is in the hands of the next few seconds, minutes and hours in the past or future isn't in their memory yet. To them every future second is a blank mystery of what they are going to do every second.

A word that not many are familiar called entropy describes the passing of time. In simple terms nothing lasts for ever. Entropy means everything neglected to time falls to pieces. In time an abandoned home turns into a haunted house finally turning to a open air property. To us the time of entropy is agonizingly slow. We only need to look at the time scale of an abandoned house neglected for a 25 years.

Here is a time travel code or a riddle that talks gibberish at first until we think of the consequences. What a time traveler did tomorrow is going to have consequences for us in our yesterday.

Deciphering  the code means when a time traveler from yesterday arrived in our future tomorrow had skipped our present changing it starting from tomorrow. For us in present time the changes don't take effect until the person arrives in our tomorrow.

Here is another code. That is equally as wired to take in. Operating on the latter principle in a couple of years time the tragic death of lady Diana is no longer going to have happened in our present time any more. Deciphering this code with the break though in time in the future a well meaning traveler was successful in making sure the car crash never happened. For us in present time this effect is not going to take effect until a couple of years into our future.

We all know the mystery of another car involved somehow. In a couple of years time a well meaning time traveler successfully restored the damage his collage had done. That's twice history has been altered. God knows how many times. It is an endless loop. A endless loop of 30 years of history.

Some of will remind us of the many world theory of parallel universe at play here. Others may take that as an excuse life is only an illusion. If it is then it is only a figment of our imagination someone we care about is neglecting us for in favor of someone we specially don't like. Imagine the excitement of challenge junkies that just done a dangerous stunt getting way with it with the added dimension of doing it the dangerous way must feel like.

In another time travel riddle Adolph Hitler was a dispatch runner in world war 1 in the thick of many battles. What is the odds of any German solder surviving every battle pretty well unscathed the whole war as he did? How easy was it for Hitler to have been a causality.

Imagine a well meaning time traveler on a mission to prevent the up and coming Jewish holocaust. What if he made sure Hillier was just another German causality? And imagine another time traveler policing time lines making sure that does not happen to keep preserving the present time line. What if a time traveler made sure all the events that would have saved the Titanic was made sure was present.

What if the crows nest sailor was made sure he had binoculars. What if a time traveler mad sure the aversive maneuvers was the correct one?

Another riddle. Do you remember when you was little a grown adult befriended you? What would you say if you just found out it was you as the adult from the future? What would you do if you found out just after the breakthrough of time travel? And that's assuming if you were the privileged few who have access to the technology.

A TV series Quantum leap is a tail of a time traveler inverter caught up in a time traveler looping. Season 5 the first episode part one Leaping on a string of a two part story sees Sam leaping various points of Lee Harvey Oswald's life. The original objective of Sam's adventures was to put right wrongs. Al knew Sam may not be able to kill the president personally. At first Sam's side kick was hopeful Sam was there just to find the truth about the events of that day.

If Sam didn't leap on to another assignment soon Sam was going to be have to kill the president personally. The plot got completed when Sam's and Oswald's minds started merging. A perplexing problem emerged when Sam was starting to believe he was Oswald. It was would have been a good thing for history but Al was concerned the real Sam might not be able to bring himself to kill the president.

In part two Leap of Judgment Sam found Oswald's personality was getting increasingly harder to control.

As Al's attempts to get though to Sam worsened he was beginning to panic Sam looked more and more Sam will not remain as Oswald anymore on the day and likely Sam couldn't bring himself to kill the president. At the same time Al was increasingly finding it harder to connect with Sam to warn him of the consequences of not killing the president reminding Sam  what he must do for history's sake. History lay in the hands of Sam.

Part two ended in a successful conclusion. The question is what if Al couldn't persuade Sam from killing the president in time? What of the time line then? Every aftermath aspect did happen over the next decades was not going to happen any more be completely different to we know it if Sam couldn't bring himself to kill the president.

You tube mystery clips claim proof of time travel to justify the scenario for a logical answer. We'd think there was no randomness of our present history but planed out by visitors from the future making sure the present time line is always as we know it.

Anybody from the future the would have confidently advised us before 1st December 1012 (the famous end of the world date that has come and gone) wasn't going to happen. They could predict accurately to the very second a disaster for the world coming. Youtube has a clip of Nastridamus predictions for 2018  Mt Vesuveus reviling the eruption of 79AD that destroyed the city of Pompeii.

Black holes

Black holes are renowned for their infinite gravitational pull. Gravity itself is renowned for compressing matter into spheres and black holes should be no exception. Some of us are reminded right in the center (the singularity) of a time before the big bang that has supposed to have created our universe. The border where light disappears into the black voids is called the event horizon.

Some us believe if a black hole spin at the speed of light there should be enough centrifugal force to create a ringed hole. The finite speed should neutralize the infinite gravitational inward pull for ships to safely travel though. Zero gravity is unheard of for a black hole.

It was once believed the combined gravitational field of the universe kept the universe from expanding until, the total was finally measured. To cosmologists shock and surprise there was not enough. There was missing gravity. It takes the mass of stars and galaxies to create gravity. It is thought their is some sort of dark matter making up the short fall.

A feature of the universe galaxies are moving away from one another. Theoretically the gravitational field of dark matter should be slowing down the expansion keeping the galaxies from expanding. Today there evidence of the universe is actually not slowed by dark matter but accelerating. What was expanding the universe against dark matter? So what ever is accelerating the galaxies was coined as some sort of dark energy they don't know anything about.

The a law of the universe says there is a maximum speed limit to all things. Specks of dust to stars travel the universes at constant velocities way way slower than light speed. Light speed itself coasts in the zero resistance of space at a maximum speed of 186 thousand miles per second. It just doesn't go any faster than a terminal velocity. It seems the terminal velocity of the universe is decreasing.

According to Isaac Newton the mass of bodies is supposed to attract each other the foundation of gravity until a German science magazine in world war 1 Annalen der Physik published Albert Einstein's sequel to the special theory of relativity called the General Theory. In the special theory it was predicted everything on a light speed scale distorts time. Distorting time distorts space. Space is flexible and rubbery. The General theory takes this one step further. The mass of body's bend space. From specks of dust to massive stars a curved space surrounds the entire circumferences like plastic shrink rap round an apple.

We can understand how mass works when feel the weight of a1kg pack of butter resting in our hands. We feel the earth's mass pulling on it technically a potential energy. Similarity we feel the earth's mass pull on it suspended over the ledge on the roof of a tall sky scrapper. If we let go the earth's mass snatches accelerating it to a meter in a second.

Despite the air resistance the falling mass has become a constant 1 meter per second free fall missile. The constant velocity is known as a terminal velocity what I call a terminal acceleration point. At the constant velocity destructive energy is store in called kinetic energy. At this point the earth's mass can't accelerate it any faster. It is at it's maximum momentum free fall tumbling headlong down the side of the building impacting with the street below. Like any free falling mass the 1kg overcomes the air resistance plowing straight though it like a bulldozer.

Mathematics projects the missile has become a 1kg a meter per second pans out to 3.6kmph impacting force. Kinetic energy is that force stored in the free fall during it's decent down the side of the building. In the instant stop with the immovable mass of the earth the becomes a gravity stronger than the earth dissipating though it to normal rest mass in a second. 

On the way down there is sufficient force to plough though anything that was in it's free falling path smashing though to the to the street bellow. A 1kg of soft butter free falling at 3.6kmph is not much force. Concrete filed basket balls have enough energy to absorb the impact. Bouncing and the destructive energy of kinetic energy depends on the density of the falling body.

If it wasn't for the earth atmosphere a single feather would drop at the same rate as the 1kg mass. What will fall faster the density of a bag stuffed full of feathers weighing the same as a 1kg steel block. Despite the different densities they both weigh the same the same free fall mass the same velocity, with the same kinetic energy impact force. The sudden stop of the impact behaves differently.

The idea the universe created by a big bang contradicts the conservation of energy law we're all taught at school. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Not to the big bang it wasn't. It implies the energy of the detonation was created where time matter and energy didn't exit.

That doesn't sound right to any of us let alone cosmologists. There are those who ignored the fact for the sake of their belief so made up an idea before the explosion there had to be a store of energy. So if matter didn't exist, nor atoms and energy shouldn't exist. Despite this there was an assistance It had to be a zone of pure energy no bigger than a particle of the atom called a singularity in the center of black holes some of us recognize as strikingly similar before the big bang.

If a Planck constant is anything to go by should represent the perimeters of this single volume of energy. A Planck constant is 1 divided by 6262 followed by 29 zeros. Scientific notation is a bit of a mouth full based on 1 divided by 10 thirty-four  times, times 6.6262 expressed as  6.26 times 10 to the minus 34. It is recognized as the smallest amount of a second a meter, and the mass of matter.

The length is indeed smaller than an atom. Common school rulers measure the thickness of a typical page of a book a micrometer thick. By comparison only to a Planck constant only 0.0000001 of a meter or 0.001 of a millimeter.

If we transpose the 6262  to the left of the same number of the 29 zeros becomes a positive number 1 multiplied by 10, thirty-four times times 6.26262. The scientific mouthful is 6.2626 times10 to the 34. The positive value is a Planck frequency because 1 Plank time being 6.26262 times 10 to the minus 34 of a second means there is a frequency of 6.6262 times 10 to the 34 Plank times per second of time.

There is nothing infinite about the Planck constant, including light speed let a lone  temperature. How cold do a black holes get? If a black hole is infinite then we'd expect black holes to be infinitely cold. Who ever heard of infinite coldness?

The nature of water freezes sold at 0 degrees Celsius. It is a point of maximum solidness water gets. Temperature keeps plummeting well bellow that. Physicists have frozen atoms to where all energy of the atom cases at a maximum of minus 273 degrees bellow zero. It doesn't get any colder than that. They discovered the quantum physics nature of atoms taken on a different dimension.

So where does this leave black holes? Is the gravitational inward pull a point it compacts the energy out of atoms? To some of us the singularity might be nothing more than a time before the big bang. What kind of temperature before in that time?

If a Planck constant is anything to go by a singularity may be on a Planck scale. Think of a class sphere for a moment. Imagine a straight line from the center to the edge as the radius. Since the Planck Constant is the smallest length of the universes the radius can't be any shorter than a Planck length. The radius is clearly half the diameter. Theoretically the diameter of a singularity would be 2 h. (h the symbol of a Planck Constant) in this case twice the Planck length. If this isn't true then the singularity is indeed zero volume and infinite density way-way infinitely beyond a Planck constant.

To demonstrate how impossible infinite can not be imagined, imagine we start with writing a 1 and keep writing following zeros indefinitely. Every zero we add represents 10 times greater in magnitude. Lets every km for kilometers in your word processor.

Type in 1Km. Insert the cursor between the 1 and km and enter a zero every second.

By the time you reached 9 zero km we would have accelerated to the outer limits of the solar system in 9 seconds flat. Starting from the last 3 zeros insert a comma back every 3 to the 1. I'm sure anybody into challenging mathematics can figure out how many millimeters in that distance.

By the time we reached a quarter minute we would have accelerated a distance of 15 zero km in 15 seconds. Insert a comma back every 3 zeros. It's an acceleration of 10 to the 15 Kilometers in quarter minuet. This kind of acceleration in every second is always 10 times the distance. By half a minute 30 zero km in 30 seconds (an acceleration of 10 to the 30 kilometers in half a minute, (30 seconds) respectively. Likewise insert a comma back every 3 zeros.

Where does that leave the Planck constant? After all it is an acceleration of 6262 twenty-nine zero kilometers across the universe or 6.262 times 10 to the 34km in 34 seconds.

By three-quarter minute we would be beyond the Planck constant 45 zero km (10 to the 45km) across the universe in 45 seconds. By a whole minute we would be a distance of 60 zero km. (An acceleration of 10 to the 60 kilometers by every minute).

The biggest search engine of the internet is Google named after a 100 digit number. In a minute 40 seconds (60 plus 40) we would be 100 zero km across the universe. (an acceleration of 10 to the 100 kilometers in a minute and 40 seconds).

If we keep adding a zero every second for an hour we would be 3 thousand 600 zero km across the universe. (10 to the 3 thousand 400Km or 10 to the, 10 to the 1.6 to the 3km). In 24 hours we would be 8 thousand 400 zero km (10 to the 8 thousand 400km or 10 times 8.4 times 10 to the 5km across the universe) in that time clearly no where near infinite let alone indefinite amount of time.

If we multiply google by itself (squared) pans out to 10,000 zero km in 2 hours and an nearly a quarter hour (10 to the 10 thousand kilometers in that time) still no where near infinite. Theoretically we could keep adding a zero every second indefinitely and never reach infinite.

If a Planck constant is anything to go by the gravitational inward pull of black holes would be the 6.262 times 10 to the 34 Newtown's (over 6 times 10 to the 33 kilograms or 6.262 times 10 to the 30 tones) per cubic radius of a singularity.

It is renowned gravity slows time. For a black holes they are supposed to stop time. When we observe images of black holes we are observing them from our point of view. In reality we can't see them because they are hidden by the same blackness of out of space.

If we observe the universe from the inside looking out of a black to the universe we mostly likely be blinded by the incoming light falling into the black void from the outside. It is said we observe astronauts suspended in the at event horizon for ever. But what is the time for astronaut's point of view looking out to the universe?

If the Planck frequency is anything to go by the astronaut would observe time on earth as fast as a Planck frequency every second. What this means for every second of his time 6.262 times 10 to the 34 years pass on earth.

From our point of view the astronaut would be suspended there for 6.626 times 10 the 34 years. From our point of view 1 second in a black hole is stretched 6.262 times 10 to the 34 years. I sure anybody into challenging mathematics how many centuries in 6.262 times 10 to the 34 years.

The math's points out light in miles is a only a slow 186 thousand miles per second. (1.86 times 10 to the 3). In kilometer terms every mile is 1.609km. It is only a mater of multiplying a 186 thousand by 1.609.

From our point of view the speed of light is a 186 thousand times as fast as every second. If we could view time on earth from a light speed point of view every second on earth we would view stretched by every 186 thousand seconds of our time.

The distortion of time

We observe the second hand of stop watches, wrist watches and clocks including digital seconds move every division every second. every now moment of time. Sports coaches win and loose our sports heroes less than a second. The standard metric prefix system (mill-lee) milli for 1 dived a thousand. 250 is quarter second (0.25) 500 a half (0.5) and 750 (0.75) is three quarter second respectively. Our wrist watches and clocks fix time at a constant speed of the present, and past seconds.

We have no memories of every future second comming. They a totaly blank to us. Our time peices tell us times arrow is the future second to come becoming the now second passing into the past second every second.

When our time peices keep good time time don't go any faster or slower than that. For the average  person there no memory beyond every present second. Every time the second hand moves every division is a now time. Every current minute is made of the memories of the past seconds.

In 1900 a German Physicist Max Planck announced he had figured out a mathematical unit of the smallest measure of the universe he called quanta. 1 quanta is defined as 1 dived 6262 followed by 29 zeros a total of a 34 digit number named after Her Planck known as the Plank constant. 6.262 times 10 to the 34 is a Planck frequency meaning 6.262 times 10 to the 34 quota by the time our wrist watch or clock second hand (including any digital seconds) moves every division.

Albert Einstein has been a popular reference to time travel ever since the introduction of the special theory of relativity. It started when he was 16 riding his bicycled deep in thought. A thought occurred to him.

"I wonder what would it be like to ride a beam of light"?

7 years latter in 1905 working as a patent examiner in Cern Switzerland he answered his own question. He was inspired to write a paper originally entitled the dynamics of moving bodies known today as the special theory. He sent a copy of his work to the German science magazine at the time called Annalen der Physik who published it in one of their issues. The paper dealt with a number issues of relativity but most famous for inspiring time travel theory.

The key to Einstein's theory is the fact that light is at it's maximum speed limit in a zero resistance of space of a 186 thousand miles per second. Despite no resistance it just doesn't coast any faster than that. It is a maximum distance of 1 second of time, By that time the second hand of wrist watch and clocks move every division including digital seconds every second.

Einstein was the first theoretical physics to realize high speed acceleration is what we commonly express today in G's. It is a pull back force we all experience pinning us back into our seats in ultra high speed take off's speically in a ultra short distanc. He realized motion on a light speed scale the horrific G's distorted time itself thus space.

Gravity is renowned for compressing matter into spheres every speck of dust asteroid stars and Planets. Einstein realized motion on a light speed scale 0 to a 186 thousand miles in one second equal to the G's 0 to 669 million 600 thousand mph in a second.

In a sense time in space is every 186 thousand miles of distorted time of the time on earth called space time. In kilometer terms  every mile equals 1.609km. It is only a matter of 186 thousand times1.609.  Light travels a desistance of 299 thousand 274 kilometers by the time every second hand of wrist watches and clocks (including digital seconds) move every division every second.

Arithmetic is an exact science. Rounding off create significant amount of errors when adding up. To keep errors from mounting we should avoid rounding off to the nearest. For example in km terms light travels 299 thousand 274 kilometers per second not 300 thousand.

The distance between the earth and moon light takes less than a couple of seconds to reach our eyes every second. Moonlight we see now is what the moon was in that time ago every second. We all know there's 60 seconds in a minute. Thus light speed multiplied by 60 pans out to the distance light travels every minute.

Light takes 8 to reach our eyes from the sun that works out a total of 8 times 60, times light speed. The sun is only 8 light minutes away from earth. Like moonlight what we see now is what the sun was 8 minutes ago every second. Every second light coasts from the sun right now (real time for the sun) is 186 thousand miles above the sun's surface every second. For the real sun time on earth we don't see this light until every second hand of a clock moves every division in 8 minutes.

We know there's 60 minutes in an hour. It pans out a 1 hour TV program is made up of a 3 thousand 60 of space times a simple formula seconds in an hour equals 60 squared. In mph terms 186 thousand per second multiplied by 3 thousand 600. Multiplied by 1.609 in kmph distance traveled in that time.

Distance in miles equals 60 squared times C and times 1.609 for km. Light travels a distance of 699 million miles and 299 thousand 274 kilometers by the space time a 1 hour long TV program.

The Gregorian  calendar western countries use is an example of time on earth for the western culture. To the west  a date change is every 24 hours at every 12 midnight is but one example. It is only a matter of 24 times 186 thousand giving the distance light travels in that time whether it be miles or kilometers. (m/km 24hd = 60 squared 24 C)

Digital time pieces is an example to there being no such thing as 24 hours. If the seconds column is included a second before the date changes 23:59 p.m. (23 hours, and 59 minutes) a whole minute before the numbers resets to 12 midnight (00:00) a.m. no hours, and no minutes for a whole minute.

Another example of calendar time is the 7 days of a week, 14 for a fortnight. If we add up all the seconds light traveling every 186 thousand miles (or a 186 thousand times 1.609km) every second in that time.

If we take 12 midnight new years morning (00:00 a.m.) to New years eve (23:59 p.m.) in 12 months pans out to well over 31 million seconds in the year. Traditionally news years eve countdown the old year is separated by the new year by a single second. Digital watches that include the seconds column tell us (:55), five....... (:56) four....... (:57) three....... (:58) two....... (:59) one......(00:00). All seconds of a year equals 60 squared times 24 times 365 days.

To calculate all the seconds in a decade we need to take into account of the extra day given at the end of every 3rd February every 10 years. We can calculate all the seconds light travels a distance in a century, in a millennia, (a thousand years) a million a billion even in a trillion centuries pass on earth even eternity. Even then things can have change for the earth's spin and orbit compared to our time.

Currently the earth's orbit throws us a curve ball because 365 and a quarter days in a normal year and the extra day at the end of every 3rd February 366 and quarter for every leap year. Taking into account of every quarter day and every leap year we can project all the seconds in every decade and century. And remember it pays not to keep rounding off to avoid inaccuracy.

International time 12 midnight takes 24 hours to circumnavigate the circumference of the earth's surface though country to country. What is 12 midday one side of the earth is 12 midnight opposite side. Even across borders of each state inside each country are often hours ahead. What would be 12 midnight new years morning in one state would be 11:00 p.m. behind in another state.

With arithmetic skill it's possible to add up all the seconds of a milliner (thousand years), millions and billions or years even trillions of centuries pass on earth the distance light would have coasted  the universe.

If we park statues point of view of their surroundings is example of a meaningless of time. God knows how many centuries pass every second to them. From our point of view they are frozen in present time every second indefinitely. Fossils are an example of millions of years in seconds since the animal died.

Some of us are inspired time travel is possible specially popular Einstein's special theory of relativity. It's not a velocity of the finite speed of light but an observation of the a static faster than the environment second.

In the second year of world war one Einstein sent a copy of a squeal to the special theory we call today the General theory to Annalen der Physik who promptly published it. In it describes the distortion of space time space itself is flexible and rubbery that the mass of matter (Stars and planets) bend space just as equally as the G's of light speed. It was a sensation over turning Isaac Newtown's gravity.

Using the System International (SI) unit Hertz frequency for a normal second of 60 seconds in every minute. Adding up all the seconds in an hour pans out to 3 thousand 600 seconds. Every minute is 60 times as slow as every second and an hour is 3 thousand 600 times as slow as a every second. Every second is 60th of a minute and 3 thousand 600th of an hour

 An example of this the hand movements of our wrist watches and clocks. We view the second hand move every division every second. I second equals 1Hz what we see of the minute and hour hands frozen in time at any given moment of time. By the time the second hand moved a full circle we don't observe the minute hand had been moving a move full division.

Things are even more dramatic with the hour hand. We never observe the minute hand moving the circle let a lone the hour hand. Both hands appear constantly frozen in time. 60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour pans out to a total of 3 thousand 600 time as slow as every second. Both hands circle the face to slow to observe moving. They are always frozen in time moving every division.

Imagine we observe the minute hand of a clock sped up as fast as every second. We observe the the second hand as a bluer racing round the face 60 times a second. We would observe the minute hand move every division as fast as we normally view every second. We would be at a frequency of 60Hz.

But from an environment observers perspective we would appear to slowed down proportionately.
Every second of our time would appear to be every minute of their time slow. We would be 60 times as slow as their every second. (Minus 60Hz) Observer perspective would view us frozen in time as slow as minute while we observe the environment at plus 60Hz

If we we observe an hour into the future every second there is 60 seconds in a minute and sixty seconds in an hour which pans out to 3 thousand 600 seconds. We would observe the second hand of the clock race round the face 3 thousand 600 times as fast as as our second and the minute hand 60 times in the same amount of time.

From a environment observer's point of view we would be that times as slow as every their second. They would observe our second in a hour of their time. We would be in present time frozen in time every second 3 thousand 600 times as slow.

The faster we observe an environment's time the slower it appears to be. So what if we were faster than the environment's time? Things are reversed. We see would observe the environment's time slow down proportionately while environment observers see us speed up proportionately. From their point of view if we where 60 times as fast as a second from our point of view the environment is 60 times as slow.

Observers would observe us as we normally observe electric fan blades disappear into a blur perspective. If we were 3 thousand 60 times as fast from their frequency perspective 3.6KHz would be to fast to observe as a solid body in time anymore. Imagine a frequency of 86.4KHz. From our perspective minus 86.4KHz

Time travel ridles

The TV series Star Trek was not afraid of some time travel stories. So far Star Wars hasn't gone there. The thing about time we do not remember anything of the future beyond present time. We have no memory the future. It is always a blank. Obviously because it hasn't happened yet.

This makes  the second hand of any stop watch, wrist watch to clock second hand moving every division including digital seconds every second a now moment of time for everybody in present time. Every present second passes into the past seconds of the past minute. It holds true a time traveler in the past or future will have no memory of their own future fate every second from when they arrived their.

They will never know what is about to happen to them personally. In the past or future every future second is still a blank in that time just as it was in his present. This means arriving on the spot the future or past time of his life the memory of things he is going to do in the next few seconds, minutes and hours in the past or future isn't in his memory for him yet. To him every future second is a blank mystery of what he is going to do.

Our clocks traveling clockwise tell us time is every second traveling second by second direction every second. The same with every future, present and past minute. The same with every future, present and past hour, day, week, month, year, decade, century every millennia (thousand years) million, a billion even a trillion centuries passing on earth. They all have a future, present and past direction flow.

A word that not many are familiar called entropy describes the passing of time. In simple terms nothing lasts for ever. Entropy means everything neglected to time falls to pieces. In time an abandoned home turns into a haunted house finally turning to a open air property. To us the time of entropy is agonizingly slow. Imagine an abandoned house would last neglected for a 100 years.

Now, here is a time travel code or a riddle that talks gibberish if you like. What we did tomorrow is going to have consequences for yesterday. Deciphering  the code means when a time traveler from yesterday arrives in the past tomorrow has skipped the present had changed our history starting from yesterday. For us in present time the changes don't take effect until tomorrow.

Here is another code. That is equally as wired to take in. Operating on the latter principle in a couple of years time the death of lady Diana is no longer going to have happened any more. Deciphering this code with the break though in time in the future a well meaning traveler was successful in making sure the car crash never happened. For us in present time this effect is not going to take effect until a couple of years into our future.

We all know the mystery of another car involved somehow. In a couple of years time a well meaning time traveler successfully restored the damage his collage had done. That's twice history has been altered we haven't realized. God knows how many times. It is an endless loop. A endless loop of 30 years of history. 

Some of will remind us of the many world theory of parallel universe at play here. Others may take that as an excuse life is only an illusion. If it is then it is only a figment of our imagination someone we care about is neglecting us for someone we specially don't like. Imagine the excitement of challenge junkies doing dangerous stunts getting way with the added dimension of doing it the dangerous way.

In another time travel riddle Adolph Hitler was a dispatch runner in world war 1 in the thick of many battles. What is the odds of any German solder surviving every battle pretty well unscathed the whole war he did? How easy was it for Hitler to have been a causality.

Imagine a well meaning time traveler on a mission to prevent the up and coming Jewish holocaust. What if he made sure Hillier was just another German causality? And imagine another time traveler policing time lines making sure that does not happen to keep preserving the present time line. What if a time traveler made sure all the events that would have saved the Titanic was made sure was present.

What if the crows nest sailor was made sure he had binoculars. What if a time traveler mad sure the aversive maneuvers was the correct one?

Another riddle. Do you remember when you was little a grown adult befriended you? What would you say if you just found out it was you as the adult from the future? What would you do if you found out just after the breakthrough of time travel? And that's assuming if you were the privileged few who have access to the technology.

You tube mystery clips claim proof of time travel to justify the scenario for a logical answer. We'd think there was no randomness of our present history but planed out by visitors from the future making sure the present time line is always as we know it.

Anybody from the future the would have confidently advised us before 1st December 1012 (the famous end of the world date that has come and gone) wasn't going to happen. They could predict accurately to the very second a disaster for the world coming. Youtube has a clip of Nastridamus predictions for 2018  Mt Vesuveus reviling the eruption of 79AD that destroyed the city of Pompeii.

What is a magnetic field

Magnets we are most familiar with are just magnetize steel bars bent into the familiar U shape. Magnetic fields are are invisible. Nobody knows what they made of let a lone what it is. Every bar magnet suspended in a sling will align across the north/south direction. One end is attracted by the earth's north pole and the other end repelled by the south pole like a cumpas. The magnet is pulled and pushed round at the same time.

We can identify the North and South seeking poles sticking an N for the North seeking and S for the south seeking pole  each each end. We can color code with green for the North seeking pole and red for the south seeking pole.

If we press together the north seeking poles of any two magnets we feel a repelling force. So too if we press the south seeking ends together. Powerful magnets can feel as if a solid without even touching the ends. The same is true when we bring together two North seeking poles together. As soon as we let go the unlike poles poles crash the magnets together. You will feel an equal force prizing the unlike poles apart. This is known as the like repel and unlike attract law.

The unit of all magnetic fields is Weber. 1Wb is a magnet powerful enough to attract a kilogram steel block a meter away in a second. The magnets we encounter on a daily basis the standard metric prefix system prefix mill (mill-lee) for 1 divided by a thousand. As a rule of thumb we can tell the strength by the repelling and attractive forces. Toy magnets are pretty week about a few millimeters. Strong commercial magnets as much as 250 a quarter Weber. 500 is half and and 750mWb three quarters of a Weber.

Iron filings trace the fields. Place any magnet under paper. Sprinkle the fillings over the paper. They will clump each end tracing the shape of the magnetic field though the paper. There are lots of magnet shapes, donuts to magnetized steel balls. The Iron fillings will trace the magnetic field round any shape.

The north and south seeking magnetic fields interact with an electric current. Any touch battery will tell you is made of positive and negative forces stored in each terminal. Every battery terminal is marked with a plus sign (+) for the positive end and a takeaway minus sign ( - sometimes unmarked) for the negative terminal. (+ - ).

It is known as an electromotive Force known by the unit voltage. It is a live positive and negative electromotivec force. They don't flow. They are only alive at each terminal. Proof of this when you press together the ends of two touch cells (Batteries if you like) about a millimeter gap and gently move from side to side. You should feel a week magnetic field force just like you felt with the magnets.

Just like a magnet you are feeling the like repel and unlike law in action. The plus to plus (+ +) and minus to minus (- - ) ends repel each other. The plus and minus ends (+ -) attract each other. If you rub the terminals with the tip of a needle you will start to experience hints of iron fluff sticking to it. It is most pronounced when you using a magnet. Strong magnetism can magnetized screw driver tips. The magnetize tip will be less than a milliWeber about a 100 Microweber (Micro for 1 divide a million) about a 10th of a milliweber and only last a few minutes.

An electric current only flows when there is a load connected in parallel with (across) the two terminals. The current flow is made up of the orbiting particle of the atom called electrons stored in the negative terminal. The moving flow unit is amperage. 1 amp is a trillion electrons close to the speed of light. Expensive rechargeable torch batteries are capable of producing more than an amp under full voltage under a dead short. Cheep specially well used batteries will have potential voltage drop called Potential difference (pd) at a minimal current supply.

The negative terminal is an access electrons making it somewhat domineeringly negative. The positive terminal lacks the same number making it somewhat domineeringly positive. When a load is connected in parallel with the two voltages the negatively charged electrons are repelled by the negatively charged terminal attracted by the positively charged terminal direction.

The positive terminal drains electrons from the negative terminal filling in the missing electron spaces in the positive terminal like nails fly to a magnet. When the terminals balance the battery is known to be flat. This is known as the electron current flow direction. Depending on the resistance to the electron current is pushed by the nearest negative and pulled to the positive voltage direction in a steady direct current stream know as Direct Current. This is known as the electronm current flow.

The resistance of all loads are in parallel with the two voltages drawing the electron current known as the current drain. The combined voltage and current the power output known by the unit Wattage. Cheep new torch batteries are only capable of a maximum of a volt with a maximum of a few milliamps current supply. These small ones are typically 1.5V with a total voltage  drop of half volt. Better quality will supply the maximum voltage and current for an extended period time.

Expensive single torch batteries (1.5V torch cells) are capable of a maximum voltage with a high current supply of a few amps more than a minute under a dead short. This is known as an amp hour ratting. 1 Amp hour torch battery will last an hour with a current drain of 1Amp before the voltage starts to wane. Typical long lasting high quality torch batteries supply 500mA, (half amp) meaning they last an hour with a current drain of 500mA before loosing voltage. Heavy loads means a low resistance in parallel with the source meaning a high current drain and high voltage drops.

Dead shorts are under an Ohm resistance supplying the maximum current supply. The total current drain of any load is the resistance of the load in parallel with any voltage. The higher the resistance the less current supply and the higher the voltage. The lower the resistance the higher the current drain and the more the voltage drops. High current drains aer potential voltage drop problems.

To much voltage is sign of too low current drain a sign of a too low current limiting resistance that should not be somewhere in the circuit. A high voltage that should not be is when a load is drawing to low current a sign of a high current limiting resistance that should not be somewhere in the circuit.
Batteries last longer with low current drain and shorter with high current drains. The current drain of any load determines the lasting power of any battery source.

The power of any circuit starts with the current drain it draws from the source. The circuit's current drain should be specified as the amp hour ratting of the source or the amp hour ratting chosen by the current drain of the circuit required. An audio project aimed at full volume at the loudest part of the audio as the total current drain drawn from the audio circuit draws for example.

The combined total voltage and current drain is the total power drain of the load on the source. A high power drain (High wattage) potentially drops voltage. Expensive torch cells are capable of supplying high power drain from a load with out effecting the total voltage for a short period of time. Watts W equals E I law tells us the he total Wattage supply is the total voltage across the load multiplied the maximum current drain.

The power of any DC power supply arrangement depends on the cost of the the battery pack arrangement. Cheep new batteries only supply as little as a maximum of 10mA with a substantial voltage drop because of a high internal resistance. A single expensive of the largest torch cell and

Latten batteries have a maximum voltage and current supply supplying high wattage under the load of low resistance. The internal resistance of expensive cells is less than an ohm even under a dead short.

Expensive high wattage torch batteries are ideal for demonstrating electric current create electric magnets. Cheep well used cells are not ideal as they are low Wattage. High Wattage battery output is required because using of low current limiting resistances the toorch cell can handle. Cheep cells are useless batteries that have high internal current limiting resistance at maximum voltage drops under heavily loads. High wattage batteries are ideal. 1.5V with a current suply of 1.5A equals 1.5W in an hour before loosing voltage.

They have a lot of current supply at the maximum current due to low internal resistance under the load of a low resistance load. One amp hour torch battery and a piece ofctronic hobby hook up wire is all you need. Use a long piece cut to about a half meter (about 50cm) should be enough.

You will need to strip away a tip of the outer insulation ends exposing just enough of the inner conducting wire for taping in electrical contact to the terminals. Seleotape the exposed inner conducting wire ends. When connected the freshly charged large high amp hour torch battery will show evidence the straight piece of wire is magnetized.

Cheep lower power batteries haven't the power under this kind of dead short. Proof of the high power of a 1wh battery when the wire collects iron fillings it tends pick up. As you play round with experiments you will notice the wire getting very fluffy with picking up loose iron fillings close by.

Disconnect the battery till you have wound round a pencil dozens turns leaving a length at each end to connect to the battery. A touch of clued helps prevents frustrating unraveling and and convenient for sliding off the pencil.

1.5Ah torch batteries are capable of producing the maximum voltage and it's maximum current supply. Depending on the current drain of the coil winding the electron current flows though the winding spinning round and round each turn as it goes. Each turn is magnetized. You will be able to pick up tacks with just one 1.5V, 1.5Ah torch battery.

Each turn of the winding adds a resistance thus lowering current drian drain on power supply. Coil windings will draw a minimal current in a moment accelerating to maximum accelerating down to a constant current drain expressed as a time constant. Time constant to reach constant current drain can last less than a second to a few seconds. The coil winding is a current limiting inductor.

The unit of inductors is Henrys. In radio engineering the current limiting resistance time const is often used in circuit design. A high Hennery inductors are high resistance and a low Hennery is a  low resistance inductor. The specified inductance of an inductor depends on the power drain on the source that determines the current drain to handle the low inductance. A single 1.5Ah torch battery is ideal. The growth in current is the time the coil winding reaches maximum voltage and current drain.

The power of single 1.5Ah torch batteries will have enough voltage and current supply to produce a North and south magnetic poles at the ends of the coil winding. Cheep run down sizes nothing. They have not enough power. The electric magnet and the magnet will attract and repel each other. The electric magnet will be attracted to the earth's magnetic poles just like a magnet.

You will find the electric magnet and the magnet will attract and repel each other. Note you will be constantly be cleaning annoying fluff off the parts the magnet and electric magnet they constantly collect.

When you disconnect you have removed the power source where the magnetic field has no where to collapse to. Large torch batteries have the power to demonstrate sparking across the gap. Cheep well used are never ideal. The coil winding is a dead short with theses batteries. They produce a minimum voltage and current supply for the spark.

Removing the coil winding from the pencil replacing it with a steel rod the power of the electric current will magnetize the metal tube. You have an electric magnet complete with the North and South seeking poles at each end of the rod acting just like a magnet.

Disconnecting the battery if you rapidly move in and out a bar magnet inside any coil winding the poles of each end magnetizes each turn. There will be an alternating North and South seeking magnetic pole passing across each turn in the coil. There will be a rise and fall of one polarity and a rise and fall of the other.

Connecting a touch bulb in parallel with (across) the winding as one pole passes across the winding the bulb lights brightly and dimly the frequency you moved in and out the magnetic poles. This is because of a corresponding plus and minus electrical voltage exists across the winding.
The electron current flow is set up repelled by the rise and fall of the negative voltage in one direction.

Then they are attracted by the corresponding rise and fall of the positive voltage the rising and falling the opposite direction. Both the winding and bulb is alive alternating positiev and negative voltage and back and forth though electron current from the moving in and out bar magnet inside the coil winding. 

Both the bulb and winding will throb from minimum brightness to minimum the frequency of the rapidly passing magnetic fields. This is the basics of alternating current. The unit of the frequency is Hertz. One cycle per second. The faster the magnet oscillates in and out of the coil winding the higher the frequency of the winding and bulb oscillates.

In machines bar magnets are either pressed into a drum circling fixed coil windings or a fixed coil winding spinning inside a fixed magnetic field the basics of a bicycle dynamo. This depends on the design of the designers choice of method. The drive can be a water wheel driven by the fall of water falling on the vanes turning the magnetic field or coil windings the basic principle of power stations producing the ac mains power.

To produce DC what are called slip rings divert electron current direction going the same direction the basis of bicycle dynamos. An electronic component known as a semiconductor called a diode is a high current limiting resistance one direction. When you turn the diode round has a low resistance.

Connected in series with a bulb are in parallel with the two ac voltages. There will be a positive and negative voltage across the both ends of each component that equal to the total voltage across them. Knowing the total current drain of the two components together the total resistance can be projected by what is known as Ohms law. The total voltage across them dived divided by the total current drain will give the total resistance of the load, I equals E over I law respectively.

If the bulb and diode are in parallel they will split up the total alternating current drain between them with the same ac voltage across both components. Electronic components in parallel are low resistance thus high current drains on the rapidly moving in and out poles of the magnet. In series low resistance thus low current drains. The total resistance of the components.

The electronic symbol of a diode is a straight line with arrow head in the center. This arrow head always points in the low resistance direction of the electron current flow. The arrow head direction is always the low resistance direction. Opposing the arrow (back of the arrow head) is always the high resistance direction. Thus the diode conducts a high current drain the direction of the arrow head and a low current back of the arrow head. There will be an alternating high and low electron current.

The direction of the electron current flow tells us there is always a negative voltage at the arrow end and a positive voltage at the back of the arrow head giving the DC voltage output polarities no matter way the diode is arranged. The arrow head always points to the negative voltage direction. The back always the positive. In wiring diagrams a plus sign at the back of the arrow head and a minus sign at the arrow point. If the dilled is reversed the polarities are reverse.

If a component called a capacitor is connected in parallel with the output across the bulb the back and forth electron the oscillating from the back and forth magnetic poles the corresponding back and forth electron current charges the capacitor one way and the bulb in parallel with the capacitor discharges it back into the circuit the back and forth frequency of the rapidly moved in and out magnet poles of the magnet.

The added current drain will take current away from the other tow components the peaks of the bulb will glow less as the capacitor shears the total current drain with them. The result is a smooth DC output though the less bright bulb.

The design of the output from the coil winding is in the current drain specifications though the bulb governed by milliweber and frequency of the in and out magnet required from  magnetic poles and the number of turns in the winding to compensate for the total loading of the components.

The output power design should start the strength and frequency of the poles can handle the load of the coil winding. Toy magnets are pretty well under powered. Strong magnets are the best choice.

A black hole spinning on a light speed scale

Some of us believe a black hole spinning at light speed should have sufficient centrifugal force to create a donut out of a black hole. Passing though a black hole is a renowned for short cuts across the other side of the universe millions of light years in a few minutes to most pof us known as a wormhole Certainly much faster than light.

In popular many worlds theory culture as portals to parallel universes. It is suggested some form of exotic matter may do the trick. But at the end of the day the infinite gravitational pull is neutralized by the spinning finite speed of light speed.

Images show black holes as black discs silhouetted in the black drop of stars. What we the images show the outer edge where light disappears called the event horizon. It is believed there is a black hole in the center of our galaxy. Video clips show a tiny event horizon right in the center.
Gravity is renowned for compressing the mass of matter into a sphere. Video clips seem to support the view black holes are spherical with a center believed to be a point of infinite density and zero volume called the singularity.

The special shape of a black hole is the event horizon in collapsed inward pull force of the singularity. The unit is Newton's.

What would a black hole look like? Think of a glass sphere the size of a basket ball with a tiny near invisible steel ball trapped right in the center. The glass represents the inward pull of the event horizon. The outside edge the point where light disappears. If the glass ball spins it would be spinning like a planet the steel ball spinning on the spot inside while the outer edge travels a distance.
If the Planck constant is anything to go by the singularity is finite.

A Planck constant is 1 divided by 6262 followed by 39 zeros a total of a 34 decimal number of a meter. That is smaller than a atom. Known as a Planck length. It is also known of a second (Planck time), a kilogram of mass (Planck mass) a Planck volume, a Joule (Planck energy) and temperature. It is a fixed minimum and maximum. It just doesn't get any smaller or bigger than that. The scientific notation is 6.262 times 10 to the minus 34. If this is anything to go by a Planck mass is a gravitational force of 6.262 times 10 to the 34 kilograms of gravitational force center to the edge (radius) of the singularity.

If the line of the equator of any sphere is opened out to a straight line reveals the fact that all straight lines are the equators (the circumference) of all spheres. Proof of this all straight lines when rolled into a circle will equal the circumference. We can measure the length of all straight lines equal to rolled into a circle the circumference of all spheres and the singularity should be no exception.

If a black hole was spinning on a light speed scale the boundary of the event horizon would be spinning at the speed the speed of light. The singularity in the center would be spinning on the spot deep in the center. Spinning on the spot there would be very little to no centrifugal force. However the boundary of the event horizon would have distance to travel round where the force will be concentrated. Whether the finite speed of light would be able to effect the infinite gravitational pull is a matter of debate.

We often learn much when Black holes are static voids. If we look out of a black hole to the universe we may see a blinding heavenly white light of incoming light from the universe. From the universes point of a total black void. If a Planck constant is anything to go by, by looking outwards to the universe time would be 6.262 times 10 the 34 times as fast while looking into the black void time is equally 6.262 as slow.

From earth an astronaut would look suspended in the event horizon every 6.262 times 10 to the 34 years. But to the astronaut point of view 6.234 times 10 to the 34 years pass in every second.